Texts of General Interest (link)
USA Trilogy (I) (Review): The History of American Imperialism
Review: the military interventions of the USA worldwide throughout history!
''You're
either with us or against us!'' (The US President George W. Bush after
the 9/11 attacks)
Introduction
Most believe that the US military interventions started with the Vietnam War. However, they began much
earlier with the Cuban War of Independence, the Spanish-American War (1898), and
the Philippine-American War (1899)! The interventions of the US worldwide
throughout history were numerous to refer to in detail! Therefore, only the
most critical interventions are briefly described here!
Regarding the crimes against humanity
that the US committed, only a few events are
mentioned in short for some specific countries in this review. That means the
US's crimes were much more widespread during its global interventions, while
many were covert!
It is essential to consider that most
people neither accurately know history nor seek to learn it from objective
sources other than CNN, the Congress Library, the internet, and the APUSH
class! Of course, the winners and the rulers write history. But this way, history
is biased. Not knowing history means we are condemned to live it again, as
history repeats similarly and regularly.
Unquestionably, the crimes of the
British Empire against humanity are well known. Like all empires in human
history, it developed through the bloodshed in its colonies. Unfortunately,
Great Britain was not held accountable to international law and did not pay
reparations for its atrocities throughout history, while even today, it
occupies Northern Ireland and Gibraltar!
Notably, the same Anglo-Saxon pattern of imperialism continued with the USA from the beginning of its independence. The US always had this Anglo-Saxon model (evident even in the film industry) despite the independence war against the British, who had thirty colonies in the US. The US administrations insisted on keeping their British ''roots,'' forgetting that the British burned Washington, including the White House and the Capitol! If the US did not defeat Britain, it would still be British! Notwithstanding, the US has always been a multinational and multicultural nation, not a British one.
Eventually, after World War II, the USA
replaced Great Britain (which is currently crumbling after Brexit) in
everything, including its crimes against humanity. Although the interventions
and the atrocities of British imperialism were more extensive, the ones of the
US were more insidious.
The scope of this review is not to teach history. That would be impossible, as today ''everyone knows everything,'' at least through a short ''Google search''! In this review, I aim to gather and briefly describe the interventions of the US since its independence to make it clear that American imperialism was widespread and ruthless. It has not started with the Vietnam War but has existed since the creation of this nation!
Since the 1950s, US interventions
globally have often occurred covertly with the aid of intelligence services
that destabilized nations, backed coups, etc. Perhaps today, ''viva la
revolution!'' should be again a motto for the countries of this planet to get
rid of the US imperialism that has conquered the earth militarily and
economically! Undoubtedly, Latin America is the place that most suffered from
US imperialism.
A straightforward way to revolution is when we all say ''no'' to Americanization and stop financially supporting the American companies that have conquered Earth commercially. We should realize that the planet does not need empires like the US that manipulate it for their benefit. It also does not need other imperialists like Russia and China who aim to replace the American eagle!
The History of
American Imperialism
a) The recent
military interventions of the USA in the Middle East & Ukraine
These are described in my text The USA as a global governor
b) Older
interventions
The Mexican–American War (1846)
The Mexican–American War (also known as the U.S.–Mexican War or the Invasion of Mexico) was a war between the USA and the Centralist Republic of Mexico from 1846 to 1848. The combat lasted 1.5 years, from the spring of 1846 to the autumn of 1847. It succeeded in 1845 by annexing Texas, which Mexico regarded as part of its territory, despite the Texas Revolution in 1836.
The US troops occupied Santa Fe de
Nuevo, Mexico, a province of the Viceroyalty of New Spain at the upper valley
of the Rio Grande River, which incorporated most of the present US state of New
Mexico. The US troops also seized the Alta California Territory, created as a
separate province in 1804 out of the northern part of the Viceroyalty of New
Spain province of Las California. It had an area including the modern state of
California and other states to the east. Next, the US invaded parts of
Northeastern Mexico and Northwest Mexico.
The Pacific Squadron (part of the USA
Navy squadron stationed in the Pacific Ocean in the 19th and early 20th
centuries) took control of several defenders on the Pacific coast in Baja,
California Territory. Other American forces invaded Mexico City, and the war
ended in a victory for the USA. With the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the
Mexicans exchanged the territories of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo
Mexico to the USA for 15 million dollars! Moreover, the USA acquired 3.25
million dollars of debt owed by the Mexican government to US citizens. Mexico
admitted Texas's loss and called the Rio Grande (one of the principal rivers in
the southwest USA and northern Mexico) its national border.
The intervention of the US in the Cuban War of Independence &
the Spanish-American War (1898)
The Spanish-American War in 1898 was a conflict between Spain and the US. It was the outcome of the USA’s intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. It led to the Philippine-American War (described below). Revolts against Spanish rule had happened earlier in Cuba. In the late 1890s, public opinion in the US was provoked by anti-Spanish propaganda led by journalists such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Hearst, who criticized the Spanish administration of Cuba. That was called ''yellow journalism,'' i.e., journalism based upon sensationalism and crude exaggeration; the word is still used today.
In January 1898, in Havana, Cuban
Spanish loyalists rioted against the new autonomous government. The loyalists
destroyed the printing machines of four local newspapers that published
articles about Spanish Army crimes. The US wanted to protect the lives of
Americans living in Havana. So, it reacted by sending to Havana the battleship USS Maine. On February 15,
1898, an explosion in Maine killed 258 of the crew while the ship sank in the
harbor. The cause of the blast has not been determined.
The colonial government took steps
demanded by the Republican US president William McKinley. It ended with the forced
relocation of tenants from their homes. At the same time, discussions were held
with the independence fighters. Nevertheless, the rebels rejected the truce. After the inexplicable sinking of the battleship, political pressures
pushed the US president to declare war on Cuba. First, Spain formally declared
war.
The US Navy used expeditionary forces to
arrive in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already destroyed by Cuban insurgents
and wasted by yellow fever. Finally, despite the resistance of some Spanish
infantry troops, Cuban, Philippine, and US forces obtained the surrender of
Santiago de Cuba and Manila. The war ended in 1898 with the Treaty of Paris,
which recognized the temporary control of Cuba by the USA and gave up ownership
of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The cession of the Philippines
involved a payment of 20 million dollars to Spain by the US to cover Spain's
infrastructure. The US gained several island territories.
The Philippine-American War (1899)
The Philippine-American War (1899–1902)
was a conflict between the USA and the revolutionaries in the Philippines after
the effort of the First Philippine Republic to secure independence from the US.
The Philippine-American War was a sequence of the fight for freedom in 1896
with the Philippine Revolution. It followed the US takeover of the Philippines
from Spain after the Spanish-American War.
The war between the US and Philippine revolutionary units began on February 4, 1899, and quickly escalated into
the 1899 Second Battle of Manila. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine
Republic declared war against the US. The war formally ended on July 4, 1902.
However, some veteran groups of the Katipunan sustained attacks against the US
forces. Other tribes, including the Moro and the Pulahanes people, continued
hostilities in distant areas and islands until their final defeat at Bud Bagsak
on June 15, 1913.
Under the 1902 ‘Philippine Organic Act,’
Filipinos were initially given limited self-government, including voting
for some elected officials such as an elected Philippine Assembly. Fourteen
years later, the US Congress passed the 1916 Philippine Autonomic Act ("Jones Act"). Finally, in 1946, after World War II and the
Japanese Occupation of the Philippines, the US allowed independence through the
''Treaty of Manila.'' The US-Philippine War had approximately 34,000 to 220,000
Philippine casualties, with most civilian deaths caused by infections and
famine.
The Second World War (WW2)
Was the US government aware of the Pearl Harbor attack?
The US government needs to have the
consent of American citizens before any military action. That has always been a
crucial strategy. When WWII broke out, the Americans were reluctant to consent
to their country's participation in the war. The US government used Gallup to
learn what public opinion believes. George Gallup founded this polling in 1935.
The Pearl Harbor massacre was a significant event that changed public opinion
to consent to participate in the war. Finding out the real story of Pearl
Harbor is complicated.
Some say that the obsolete US Pearl
Harbor radar did notice the Japanese squadron, but the officers thought they
were US planes or, according to others, a giant flock of birds! Another claim
is that the chief officer was out of duty and replaced a less experienced one
who failed to recognize the signal. A third theory claims that a Latin country
ambassador was aware of the impending attack and warned the US. This theory
claims that the US had already deciphered the signals of the imminent attack.
Classified evidence shows that US
President Franklin D. Roosevelt was warned three days before the Japanese
empire was about to attack Hawaii. The information in a declassified memorandum
from the Office of Naval Intelligence shows that Washington dismissed the
warnings. The memo stated, "In anticipation of possible open conflict with
this country, Japan is utilizing every available agency to secure military,
naval, and commercial information, paying particular attention to the West
Coast, the Panama Canal, and the Territory of Hawaii."
Conspiracy theorists have claimed that
Roosevelt deliberately ignored intelligence of an imminent attack in Hawaii,
suggesting that he allowed it to happen so that he would then have a legitimate
reason for declaring war on Japan. Many do not mention that the Japanese living
in the US were detained after the Pearl Harbor attack! In any case, the US
anticipated this attack, and it is at least weird why they left their Hawaii
fleet unprotected. Perhaps to allow the event to occur and change public
opinion about US participation in WWII.
Did the US save the world in WWII?
Contrary to widespread belief, the US did
not save the world exclusively, as it participated in the coalition forces. The
US participated in WWII, aiming after the war's end to divide the planet into
spheres of influence, along with its other two allies, the UK and the USSR. It
was Russia that fought the Nazis and captured Berlin. The battles on the
Eastern front were decisive for the war's outcome not only because the Nazis
were defeated but also because they delayed the Germans enough, preventing them
from focusing on Western Europe and African fights.
It is unacceptable that the West does
not recognize the Russian army's heroism in setting Europe free from the Third
Reich. The US film industry has created the stereotype of American soldiers
fighting the Nazis. Still, their losses were substantial during the D-day
Normandy landing when the German machine guns that were supposedly unaware of
the attack wiped out the US troops! That means the Allies' tremendous death
toll makes this operation less successful than many believe!
The division
of the world into spheres of influence at the Yalta Conference (1945) after the
end of World War II
The Yalta Conference was held from
February 4 to 11, 1945, in the Livadia Palace, near Yalta, in Crimea. It was
the World War II summit of the leaders of the government of the USA,
represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt; Great Britain, represented by
Prime Minister Winston Churchill; and the Soviet Union, represented by Joseph
Stalin. They assembled to discuss Europe's post-war rearrangement into spheres
of influence.
At Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill
conferred with Stalin the conditions under which the Soviet Union would enter
the war against Japan, and all three acknowledged that, in exchange for
potentially crucial Soviet participation in the Pacific, the Soviets would be
given a sphere of influence in Manchuria following Japan’s surrender. The
leaders also addressed the future of Germany, Eastern Europe, and the United
Nations.
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed
to include France in the postwar rule of Germany. They also decided that
Germany should accept some, but not all, responsibility for WWII reparations.
Simply put, that means Germany never paid the reparations it ought to! I wonder
if it did so for WWI! The US and Britain accepted that the Eastern
European nations' future governments bordering the Soviet Union should be
attached to the Soviet regime. They also released a notice on Poland, providing
for incorporating Communists in the postwar national government.
All parties consented to an American
plan concerning the voting scheme in the United Nations Security Council. That
had been expanded to five permanent members following the inclusion of France.
Each of these permanent members was to veto decisions before the Security
Council. The permanent members (5 seats) of the United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) are the US, the UK, China, France, and Russia. These permanent members
can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including accepting new
member states or candidates for Secretary-General.
Significant points of the Yalta
conference:
a) The agreement that the priority was
the absolute surrender of Nazi Germany. After the war, the country would be
divided into four occupied zones, with Berlin's quadripartite occupation.
b) Russia consented to let France get
the fourth occupation zone in Germany and Austria, formed from the British and
American zones. France would also be given a seat in the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC).
c) Germany would undergo
demilitarization and denazification.
d) Creating an allied reparation council
with its seat in Moscow.
e) Concerning Poland, it was accepted to
reorganize the Provisionary Polish Government set up by the Red Army of the
Soviet Union via incorporating other groups, such as the Polish Provisional
Government of National Unity, to be followed by elections. Poland should
receive substantial compensation from Germany.
f) Citizens of the Soviet Union and
Yugoslavia were to be delivered to their respective countries, regardless of
their consent.
g) Roosevelt received a pledge from
Stalin to participate in the United Nations (UN) once it was agreed that each
of the five permanent members of the Security Council would have veto
power.
h) Stalin decided to enter the battle
against Japan within 90 days after the defeat of Germany. The Soviet Union
would receive the southern part of Sakhalin and the Kurile islands after the
downfall of the Empire of Japan.
Korea & Vietnam
The Korean War (1950)
The Korean War
was between North and South Korea, in which a UN (United Nations) force led by
the US battled for the South, while China fought for the North, which the
Soviet Union also aided. The war resulted from Korea's division at the end of
World War II and the global tensions of the Cold War. Japan governed Korea from
1910 until the end of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared
war on Japan and occupied Korea north of the 38th parallel with the US's
approval. Afterward, the US forces invaded the south, and Japan
surrendered.
By 1948, two
separate governments had been set up. Both governments were alleged to be the
legitimate government of Korea. On June 25, 1950, the conflict intensified when
North Korean forces invaded South Korea, supported by the Soviet Union and
China. On that day, the UN Security Council acknowledged this North Korean act
as an invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire.
On June 27,
the Security Council decided on the formation and dispatch of the UN Forces in
Korea. Twenty-one United Nations (UN) countries finally joined South Korea's
defense, with the USA being 88 percent of the UN's military human force.
Eventually, after the first two months of the conflict, South Korean troops
were overwhelmed and were forced back to the Pusan Perimeter.
In September
1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, killing many
North Korean attackers. In October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and
entered the war, making UN forces leave. The war lasted until mid-1951. The
last two years of conflict became a wear-down war, with the front line close to
the 38th parallel. Air raids by Western jet fighters bombed North Korea.
However, Soviet warplanes defended their Communist allies. The fighting
finished on July 27, 1953, with the signing of a truce. The agreement settled the
Korean Demilitarized Zone separating North and South Korea and allowed
detainees' return.
The tensions with South Korea
In 2017, US
President Donald Trump accused North Korea of developing nuclear ballistic
intercontinental missiles. Satellite images proved this accusation while the
regime launched some test missiles that fell near Japan. Then, the US president
demanded the denuclearization of North Korea. However, the North Korean
dictator Kim Jong-un was not keen to abandon his nuclear program. Any
change in the policy of South Korea has China's approval, which is behind North
Korea. Some also add Russia.
The Vietnam War (1955-1975)
The Vietnam
War was a war that happened in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from November 1,
1955, to the downfall of Saigon on April 30, 1975. This war followed the First
Indochina War (1946–1954) between North Vietnam (supported by the Soviet Union,
China, and other communist allies) and the government of South Vietnam
(supported by the US, the Philippines, and other anti-communistic allies). The
Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front (NLF)), a South
Vietnamese communist common front supported by the North, launched a guerrilla
war against anti-communist forces.
The North
Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong fought to reunify Vietnam under
communist rule. The US government was involved in the war to prevent a
communist takeover of South Vietnam, aiming at stopping the spread of
communism. During the war, the US conducted a large-scale bombing campaign
against North Vietnam. The People’s Army of Vietnam (also known as the North
Vietnamese Army (NVA)) was involved in a more conventional war, often using
large units to combat.
The US
involvement
In 1950,
American military advisors arrived in Vietnam. The US involvement intensified
in the early 1960s, with troops tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. The US
involvement escalated further following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident in
which a US destroyer collided with North Vietnamese fast attack craft at the
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This incident authorized the US president to
increase the US military presence in the region.
The coup against
the president of South Vietnam
In 1963, the
CIA backed a coup against the president of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem. In a
sudden coup, Duong Van Minh and his co-conspirators overthrew the government on
November 1, 1963. On November 1, the generals called the palace, offering Diem
exile if he surrendered. Notwithstanding, Diem escaped via an underground
passage to Cholon, where he was apprehended the following morning and
executed.
The
involvement of Laos and Cambodia and the Tet offensive
The US forces
heavily bombed bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia as American participation
in the war peaked in 1968. On January 30, 1968, the communist side launched the
Tet Offensive. It was a massive military campaign of shock attacks against
military and civilian command and control centers throughout South Vietnam. It
was led by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam against
the South Vietnamese Army of the Republic of Vietnam, the US Armed Forces, and
their allies. This offensive became the turning point in the war. It convinced
a large part of the US population that its government's claims of progress
toward winning the war were deceptive, regardless of the US military aid to
South Vietnam.
The end of the
war
The fighting
resumed despite the Paris Peace Accord, which all parties signed in January
1973. Gradual withdrawal of USA ground forces started, intending to end
American involvement in the war while transferring the task of fighting the
Communists to the South Vietnamese. The US military involvement ceased on
August 15, 1973.
The occupation
of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 signaled the end of the
war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified in 1976. The war had a
tremendous human cost concerning deaths. Estimates of the number of Vietnamese
soldiers and civilians killed vary from 800,000 to 3.1 million! About 200,000
to 300,000 Cambodians and 20,000 to 200,000 Laotians died, while 58,220 US
soldiers were also killed in the conflict, with a further 1,626 missing in
action.
The Kent State
shootings of innocent college students
The Kent
State shootings occurred on May 4, 1970, when unarmed college students were
shot by members of the Ohio National Guard at Kent State University in Kent,
Ohio, during a mass protest against Cambodia's bombing by US military forces.
Twenty-eight guardsmen of the Ohio National Guard fired about sixty-seven rounds in 13
seconds, assassinating four students and wounding nine others, one of whom
suffered permanent paralysis. Some of the shot students protested against the
Cambodian Campaign, which President Richard Nixon proclaimed during the TV
address on April 30.
The US
President's idea to drop a nuclear bomb on North Vietnam
In 2002 tape
recordings of communications between former US President Richard Nixon and some
of his top advisors during the first six months of 1972 were released to the
public. The recording revealed the idea of using a nuclear bomb on North
Vietnam! Khoo Khay Kim, a history professor at the University of Malaya in
Kuala Lumpur, said: "Asians, in general, would say, 'Thank God Nixon did
not get his way"!
Agent Orange:
the poison that devastated North Vietnam
Agent Orange was a powerful
herbicide used by the US military forces during the Vietnam War to
eliminate forest cover and crops for North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops. The
US program was codenamed ''Operation Ranch Hand.'' According to this, the US
aircraft sprayed over twenty million gallons of toxic herbicides over Vietnam,
Cambodia, and Laos from 1961 to 1971.
This agent
contained the harmful chemical dioxin and was the most commonly used herbicide.
However, it was later proven to cause severe diseases, including cancer,
congenital disabilities (affecting fetuses), rashes, and severe psychological
and neurological problems. These affected many Vietnamese people and American
veterans of the armed forces and their families.
Analysis of the causes of the Vietnam
war
Why did the US
decide to support a regime change?
Historian
Edward Miller, author of "Misalliance: Ngo Dinh Diem, the United States,
and the Fate of South Vietnam," believes that Kennedy's critical
development was the so-called ''Buddhist Crisis'' in the spring of 1963. These
monks and their supporters accused the Prime Minister of the Vietnam Ngo Dinh
Diem of religious bigotry and persecution. Diem was a member of the Catholic
minority, and the Buddhists blamed him for trying to suppress their sacred
right.
These
protests brought international awareness from the photo showing one of the
Buddhist monks who burned himself to death on a Saigon Street corner. Among
those who saw the picture was US President John Kennedy. The breaking point for
Kennedy came in August of 1963 when Diem decided to use force to suppress the
unrest. That was the turning point when Kennedy opted for regime change.
According to
Edward Miller, in South Vietnam, several weak governments followed Diem's
death. The generals who overthrew Diem were only in power for about three
months. After the coup, the communist leaders in North Vietnam decided to
swiftly intensify their war effort in the south, aiming to bring the South
Vietnamese state's downfall before the US could intervene with its troops. This
Communist intensification resulted in US President Lyndon Johnson's escalation.
Therefore, in 1965 the US began raiding North Vietnam and sent thousands of
troops to the south. Unquestionably, the coup led directly to the intensification
of the war with unfavorable repercussions for both Vietnam and the US.
What might
have happened if JFK had not been assassinated?
Edward Miller
answers: ''I don’t think he would have taken the path of massive escalation
that President Lyndon B. Johnson (who succeeded JFK) did. However, I don't
believe he would have opted for an immediate withdrawal either. I suspect that
Kennedy would have chosen some middle course.''
Laos (Laotian Civil War, 1968)
Laos was an
essential component of the Vietnam War since North Vietnam invaded and occupied
parts of Laos as a supply route for its conflict with South Vietnam. The US
reacted by launching a bombardment campaign against the North Vietnamese
positions, supported anti-communist forces in Laos, and supported South
Vietnamese attacks into Laos.
In 1968, the
North Vietnamese Army launched a multi-division attack to help the Pathet Lao,
a communist political movement in Laos, attack the Royal Lao Army. In the
battle, the Lao Hmong forces of the "US Secret Army" were backed by
the US and Thailand and led by General Vang Pao. The assault resulted in the
army's defeat.
The US
proceeded with a massive air raid against the Pathet Lao. Then, the US carried
out troops of the People's Army of Vietnam to prevent the collapse of the Royal
Kingdom of Laos central government. Between 1964 and 1973, the US bombardments
made Laos the "most heavily bombed country on earth," as American
B-52 bombers dropped an average of one bomb load every eight minutes, 24 hours
a day, totaling more bombs than was dropped during the whole Second World
War!
In 1975, the
Pathet Lao, the Vietnam People's Army, and the Soviet Union ousted the royalist
Lao government, driving King Savang Vatthana to renounce his throne on December 2, 1975. He later died in detention. During the civil war, between 20,000
and 70,000 Laotians died.
The Cambodian Civil War (1970)
The Cambodian
Civil War was a battle between the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (the
Khmer Rouge) and their allies (the Democratic Republic of Vietnam of North
Vietnam and the Viet Cong) against the government troops of the Kingdom of
Cambodia and (after October 1970) the Khmer Republic. The US and the Republic
of Vietnam (South Vietnam) backed the Khmer.
On March 18,
1970, a pro-American, anti-Vietnamese government came into power after a coup
and stopped Cambodia's noninterference in the Vietnam War. The new Cambodian
government threatened the North Vietnamese Army (PAN). Between March and June
1970, the North Vietnamese relocated many of its military bases inside Cambodia
to protect them from US attacks and bombardments. In skirmishes with the
Cambodian army, they captured most of the northeastern third of the country.
The North Vietnamese assisted the Khmer Rouge. The Cambodian government
increased its military to combat the North Vietnamese and the Khmer
Rouge.
The US
assisted the central government with massive airstrikes, arms, and financial
aid to prevent communism. The Republican government was won on April 17, 1975,
after five years of fighting, when the victorious Khmer Rouge declared the
establishment of Democratic Kampuchea.
The conflict
was part of the second Indochina War (1959 to 1975), which also destroyed the
neighboring Kingdom of Laos (Laotian Civil War) and Vietnam (Vietnam). The
Cambodian civil war led to the Cambodian genocide. The Khmer Rouge (KR)
policies of the forced relocation of the population from urban centers,
torture, mass killings, and use of forced labor led to the death of 25 percent
of the total population, around 2 million people! Up to 20,000 mass graves were
found! The genocide ended following the Vietnamese attack on Cambodia.
Cluster munition used in Laos and Cambodia
The USA dropped millions of bombs on Cambodia and Laos during the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s targeting communist bases. From 1964 to 1973, during the Vietnam War, Laos suffered an unprecedented US bombing campaign, becoming the most heavily bombed country in the world per capita.
The raids included about 250 million cluster munitions, nearly 30 percent failing to detonate on impact. Many cluster bombs were left scattered across the territory, with the potential to explode unexpectedly. Cluster munition can remain lethal for decades. Unexploded bombs have killed over 50,000 people in Laos, 20,000 of whom died since the Vietnam War ended in 1975.
Following 30 years of civil war, which ended in 1998, Cambodia is among the most heavily mined countries in the world. Over the last four decades, about 20,000 Cambodians have been killed in the aftermath of the US bombing campaign and minefields. Many died after stepping on landmines or unexploded ordnance. Clearance work continues until now.
The numerous
interventions in Latin America
(Impossible to
be all described here!)
The US
intervened in almost all of Latin America, where it backed governments friendly to
the US, often organizing even coups to achieve its purpose.
Dominican Republic (1961)
In 1916, US
President William Howard Taft ordered the Dominican Republic's occupation by
the US. On May 16, 1916, US Marines landed and had control of the country two
months later. The US established the military government led by Rear Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp.
Nevertheless,
the Dominicans renounced this government, leading guerrilla attacks against the
US forces. The opposition to the occupation continued and aggravated after
the First World War. Eventually, US President Warren G. Harding ended the
occupation in October 1922 and held elections in March 1924. The winner was
former president Horacio Vasquez Lajara, who had cooperated with the US. On May
30, 1961, US intelligence supported the overthrow of Rafael Trujillo, the Dominican
Republic's Dictator. Trujillo has been characterized as one of the worst
dictators in America.
On April 26,
1965, Jose Rafael Molina was declared a provisional president. Nonetheless,
large mobs gathered in the streets demanding the return from exile of former
president Juan Emilio Bosch Gavino. US diplomats located in Santo Domingo
planned the evacuation of 3,500 US citizens living in the city. Marine Corps
landed in Haina and later moved to the Hotel Embajador, assisting the expected
airlifts. During the night, 684 civilians were airlifted to the USS Boxer. On May
26, US forces began gradually departing from the island. The first post-war
elections were held on July 1, 1966.
Cuba (1959)
(See also
above: ‘The intervention of the US in the Cuban War of Independence & the
Spanish-American war (1898)’)
The US
presidents Eisenhower’s and Kennedy’s administrations approved
intelligence–trained Cuban anti-communist exiles and refugees to land in Cuba
and attempt to topple the government of Cuban leader Fidel Castro, the socialist
dictator of Cuba. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower initially formed the plans
and allotted 13.1 million dollars to the CIA to plan Castro's overthrow. The
CIA directed the operation with the assistance of various Cuban
counter-revolutionary troops, the Brigade 2506, which was trained in Mexico. It
fronted the Democratic Revolutionary Front (DRF) armed wing to oust the
communistic government of Fidel Castro, who developed ties with the Soviet
Union.
US President
John F. Kennedy (JFK) approved the most extensive coup attempt, the notorious ''Bay
of Pigs Operation.'' This operation was engaged by the CIA-sponsored
paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on April 17, 1961, and was designed as a
military invasion of Cuba. On April 13, 1961, over 1,400 paramilitaries,
divided into five infantry battalions and one paratrooper battalion, gathered
in Guatemala before setting out for Cuba by boat.
On April 15,
eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers bombarded Cuban airfields. On April 16, the
primary division landed at the beach of Playa Giron in the Bay of Pigs. It
initially defeated a local revolutionary militia. The Cuban Army, led by Jose
Ramon Fernandez, defended the Bay. The Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces
defeated the invading army within three days under the direct command of Fidel
Castro. On April 20, the invaders finally surrendered, with most troops
imprisoned.
On November
30, 1961, President Kennedy authorized covert operations against the government
of Fidel Castro in Cuba. ''Operation Mongoose'' was a secret program to remove
the Communists from power. The CIA planned many assassination ideas during
Operation Mongoose, but all failed.
In 2016 Cuba
made meaningful moves for reconciliation with the USA. On March 20, 2016, US
President Obama visited Cuba initiating a new era for Cuba-US relations. Obama
met with the Cuban leader Raul Castro but not with his brother Fidel. This
visit was followed by gestures of political goodwill, including constitutional
reforms. On April 18, 2018, Miguel Diaz-Canel was sworn in as the new president
of Cuba, ending the dynasty of the Castros.
Chile (1973)
In September
1970, the Marxist Salvador Allende election as the president of Chile
led U.S. President Richard Nixon to a robust campaign of covert resistance to
Allende. Initially, the campaign intended to convince the Chilean Congress to
affirm Jorge Alessandri as the election winner. But when this failed, the US
organized a coup.
Extensive
covert efforts proceeded with US-funded black propaganda and the support of
strikes directed against Allende and financing Allende opponents. General
Augusto Pinochet had been promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Army by Allende
on August 23, 1973, having been its General Chief of Staff since early 1972. On
September 11, 1973, after a period of unrest. Pinochet assumed power in a
violent coup. Allende was assassinated during the coup. Several academics have
stated that the US's support was essential to the coup and power strengthening
afterward.
In December
1974, the ruling military junta appointed Pinochet as Supreme Head of the
nation by joint decree. Following his rise to leadership, Pinochet persecuted
leftists, socialists, and political critics, resulting in the killings of 1,200
to 3,200 people, the detention of 80,000 people, and the torture of thousands.
According to the Chilean government, the number of executions and forced
disappearances was 3,095.
In a 1988
referendum, 56 percent voted against Pinochet's continuing as president. That
led to democratic elections for the presidency and Congress. In 1990, after
stepping down, Pinochet remained to serve as Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean
Army until March 10, 1998, when he retired and became a senator-for-life.
However, when
he visited London on October 10, 1998, he was arrested under an international
warrant connected with numerous human rights violations. Following a legal
battle, he was released on ill-health grounds and returned to Chile on March 3,
2000. In 2004, he stood trial on three hundred criminal charges and was placed under
house arrest. Despite the formal accusation for numerous human rights violations
during his 17-year rule and tax evasion and fraud (he was accused of having
amassed at least 28 million USD corruptly), he only served time in home
confinement until his death on December 10, 2006.
Guatemala (1954) and the ''Banana Republic''
The Guatemalan
Revolution of 1944-1954 overthrew the US-backed dictator Jorge Ubico and
brought a democratically elected government to power. The government tried to
grant land to millions of landless peasants, threatening the United Fruit
Company's landholdings that lobbied for a coup by representing these reforms.
The CIA authorized the overthrow of the democratically elected government of
Jacobo Arbenz and placed the military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas.
In August
1953, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower empowered the CIA to conduct the
PBSUCCESS operation. The CIA armed, funded and trained a unit of 480 men led
by Carlos Castillo Armas, which invaded Guatemala on June 18, 1954. Bombardments
of Guatemala City backed the invasion. Arbenz resigned on June 27, and
following negotiations in San Salvador, Carlos Castillo Armas became president
on July 7, 1954.
A long civil
war followed in which about 200,000 people were killed, mainly by the US-backed
military. The coup popularized the political science term ''Banana republic,''
coined by American writer O. Henry in his book ''Cabbages and Kings'' (1904).
Nicaragua (1983)
The Contras
were a guerrilla force in Nicaragua that opposed the left-wing Sandinista
government 1979–1990 and was backed by the US. It was officially disbanded in
1990 after the Sandinistas' electoral defeat.
In 1983, the
CIA organized a group of ''Unilaterally Controlled Latino Assets'' (UCLA),
whose task was sabotaging ports, refineries, boats, and bridges and making it
look like the contras had done it. In January 1984, UCLA conducted the
operation that led to the ratification of the Boland Amendment, the mining of
several Nicaraguan harbors, which sank several Nicaraguan boats and damaged at
least five foreign vessels.
The Contras,
based in neighboring Honduras, engaged in a guerrilla war to overthrow the
government of Nicaragua. The USA financed, trained, and armed the Contras. The
Boland Amendments (1982 – 1984) made it illegal to use US funds to support the
Contras under US law. Nonetheless, President Ronald Reagan's
administration armed and funded the Contras by secretly selling arms to Iran in
exchange for their cash to supply weapons to the Contras of Nicaragua!
Daniel Ortega was
a Nicaraguan guerrilla leader, a member of the Sandinista junta who took power
in 1979. The Sandinista government led by Daniel Ortega won the 1984 Nicaraguan
elections. Ortega was the elected president of Nicaragua from 1984 to 1990 and
from 2007 to the present.
The national
elections of 1984 were conducted during a state of emergency officially
justified by the war against the Contras insurgents and the CIA-backed bombardments.
The 1984 election was for offices under the Sandinista Directorate. A critical factor in preventing the 1984 elections from establishing democracy
was the United States' policy toward Nicaragua.
In 1984 the US administration's support for non-participation allowed the
Coordinadora members, a coalition of three right-wing Nicaraguan parties, to
boycott the Nicaraguan general election to gain control. On October 5, 1985,
the Sandinistas broadened the state of emergency that began in 1982. They
suspended many more civil rights. The Sandinistas lost control in 1990 when
they ended the emergency state and held an election in which all the main
opposition parties participated. The Contras were officially disbanded after the
Sandinistas' electoral defeat.
Ortega's
relationship with the US was never friendly due to the US support for Somoza
before the revolution. Although the US supplied post-revolution Nicaragua with
generous economic aid, connections broke down when the Sandinistas gave weapons
to leftist Salvadoran insurgents.
Nicaragua's Permanent Commission on Human Rights accused the Sandinistas of killing thousands. The Contras have also been charged with war crimes
like rape, arson, and civilian killing. In 1986, the International Court of
Justice (ICJ) ruled Nicaragua against the USA and awarded reparations to
Nicaragua. The ICJ concluded that the US had violated international law by
supporting the Contras in their rebellion against the Nicaraguan government and
mining Nicaragua's harbors!
Brazil (1964)
President Joao
Goulart (also known as ‘Jango’) was a member of the Brazilian Labor Party and a
democratically elected Vice President. On March 30, the US military attaché in
Brazil, Colonel Vernon A. Walters, telegraphed the State Department,
admitting the US participation in covert support for protests, the support of
anti-communism in the Congress, and the armed units. US President Lyndon B.
Johnson approved logistical materials to be in place to back the rebellion's
coup-side as part of the US ''Operation Brother Sam.'' The coup continued from
March 31 to April 1 and led to the dethroning of President Joao Goulart by part
of the Armed Forces, backed by the US.
Panama (1989)
Manuel Antonio
Noriega Moreno was the military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989 when he was ousted during Panama's invasion. Noriega operated jointly with the
CIA from the 1950s until just before the US invasion! It is said that Noriega
was one of the CIA's most valuable intelligence sources and one of the primary
conduits for illicit weapons, military equipment, and funds destined for
US-backed forces throughout Central and South America! He was also a major
cocaine trafficker. The US intelligence service was aware of this but supported
him because of his value for their covert military procedures in Latin America.
In 1988,
Noriega was accused of drug trafficking charges in Miami, Florida. On December
20, 1989, the US government arranged ''Operation Just Cause'' to safeguard the
lives of US citizens in Panama and secure the neutrality of the strategic
Panama Canal as required by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties.
With the USA
invasion of Panama, Noriega was expelled from power, seized, detained, and
flown to the USA. Although described as a ''surgical maneuver,'' the operation
led to many civilian deaths during the two weeks of armed activities. Deaths
were estimated from 450 to 4,000, with the former figure being more probable
than the latter. The US announced that 23 US armed forces members were killed
and 324 were wounded. The bombardments during the invasion caused the
displacement of 20,000 people, while the financial damage caused by the attack
has been estimated to be between 1.5 and 2 billion dollars.
This operation
was the most massive US military operation to that date since the end of the
Vietnam War. On December 29, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly approved
a resolution calling the intervention in Panama a ''flagrant violation of
international law and the state's independence, sovereignty, and territorial
integrity.''
In April 1992,
Noriega was tried for drug trafficking, extortion, and money laundering. On
September 16, 1992, he was sentenced to 40 years in prison, later reduced to 30
years. France was granted its extradition request in April 2010. He arrived in
Paris on April 27, 2010, and in July 2010, after a retrial, he was found guilty
and sentenced to seven years. On September 23, 2011, Noriega was granted a
conditional release to be deported to serve 20 years in Panama. He eventually
returned to Panama on December 11, 2011. Diagnosed with a brain tumor in March
2017, Noriega suffered complications during surgery and died two months
later.
Venezuela (2002)
Relations
between Venezuela and the US government worsened in April 2002 when the US
supported a coup against the Venezuelan government of Hugo Chavez.
Senior officials were part of the plot. The plotters were received
at the White House by President George W. Bush. On April 11, 2002, following
encounters between both supporters and opponents of Chavez, Lucas Rincon,
commander-in-chief of the Venezuelan Armed Forces, announced that Chavez had
offered his resignation from the presidency. While Chavez was brought and held
to a military base, military leaders appointed Pedro Carmona as the
transitional President of Venezuela.
The US
government supported the 36-hour government of Carmona. But after protests from
Chavez's followers and under pressure from some military units, Chavez finally
returned to administration. On March 5, 2013, Vice President Nicolas Maduro
announced that Chavez had died in a military hospital in Caracas "after
battling a tough illness for nearly two years" (colon cancer). In 2015,
Venezuela was proclaimed a national security threat by US President Barack
Obama.
Maduro
succeeded Chavez as president. On August 11, 2017, US President Donald Trump
said he would not rule out a military option to oust Maduro as the economic
crisis in Venezuela was increasing dramatically.
Grenada (1983)
The United
States invasion of Grenada, codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, occurred on
October 25, 1983. The Ronald Reagan administration in the U.S. decided to act
on a formal appeal for help from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States.
Paul Scoon, the Governor-General of Grenada, covertly signaled he would support
outside intervention. Reagan also acted due to ''concerns'' over the 600 US
medical students on the island. Why did they choose to study medicine in
Grenada instead of a medical school in the US?
The attack was
triggered by the People's Revolutionary Government dispute, which resulted in
the house arrest and execution of the previous leader and second Prime Minister
of Grenada, Maurice Bishop. It also resulted in the Revolutionary Military
Council's establishment with Hudson Austin as Chairman.
After this,
the US and an alliance of six Caribbean nations invaded Grenada's island
nation near Venezuela. The attack resulted in the military occupation of
Grenada within a few days. In Grenada's armed forces, seventy-three soldiers were killed,
while on the U.S. side, nineteen soldiers were killed (a number not negligible).
Also, in Grenada, sixty-seven civilians died, eighteen of whom when the U.S. Air Force
''accidentally'' (although they always have maps) bombed a mental hospital.
That is what the U.S. authorities cynically call ''collateral damage''!
Austin's military government was deposed and replaced by an interim government
with Paul Scoon as Governor-General. Democratic elections followed this in
1984.
The interventions
concerning Islamic nations
The recent military interventions of the US in the Middle East are described in my text The USA as a global governor!
Libya
(1986 US
airstrikes; 2011 Arab Spring and the civil war that followed)
Muammar Gaddafi was born near Sirte to a Bedouin family. Within the royal military, he founded a revolutionary faction. In a 1969 coup, he ousted the Western-backed Senussi monarchy of Idris. Having taken leadership, Gaddafi converted Libya into a republic ruled by his Revolutionary Command Council. He expelled the Italian population and Western military bases from Libya with a decree while growing relations with Arab nationalist governments. He also started sharia (Islamic law) as the basis for the legal system and promoted "Islamic socialism." Additionally, he nationalized the oil industry and strengthened the military. In 1977, he changed Libya into a new socialist nation. His ideas were described in ''The Green Book.''
During the
1970s and 1980s, Libya's unsuccessful border battles with Egypt and Chad,
support for foreign militants, and alleged responsibility for the Lockerbie
bombing in Scotland led to the country's isolation from the West that escalated
to the 1986 US bombing of Libya and economic sanctions imposed by the United
Nations (UN).
The 1986 US
bombing of Libya, codenamed Operation ''El Dorado Canyon'', involved air raids
by the US against Libya on April 15, 1986. The US Air Force, Navy, and Marine
Corps carried out the attack via air strikes in revenge for the 1986 West
Berlin bombardment. Forty reported Libyan casualties were reported, while one US
plane was shot down. Among the dead Libyans was a baby girl, said to be Muammar
Gaddafi's daughter, Hana Gaddafi.
From 1999,
Gaddafi boosted economic privatization, rapprochement with Western nations, and
Pan-Africanism. He was the Chairperson of the African Union from 2009 to 2010.
Amid the 2011 Arab Spring, upheaval against extensive corruption broke out in
eastern Libya.
The Arab
Spring was not as spontaneous as many believe, but behind this was the West,
especially the US, which aimed to bring the Arab countries into its sphere of
influence. In the case of Libya, one of the deeper reasons for the Arab Spring
is that Libya holds the largest proven oil reserves in Africa and is an
essential contributor to the global supply of light, sweet crude.
The so-called
‘Arab Spring’ in 2010 was manipulated by the US and its allies, with the aid of
non-governmental organizations and groups, and using social media to cause the
uprising of the local population, especially fanatic groups. Some say that
Western funds and arms supported the jihadist insurgents militarily. The ‘Arab
Spring’ uprising in North Africa and the Arabic Peninsula led Libya, Egypt, and
Tunisia to chaos.
The situation
in Libya escalated into a tribal war, in which NATO intervened militarily on
the side of the anti-Gaddafi National Transitional Council (NTC). Gaddafi's government was overthrown after bloody battles between the insurgents and the government forces. In October 2011, Gaddafi retreated to Sirte, where
NTC militants seized and executed him. France led NATO's operations.
Unbelievably,
in the civil war that followed, the West supported the jihadist rebels in Libya
with the aid of Turley, NATO's ally! According to the German newspaper Die
Welt, Turkey paid the jihadist mercenaries who fought in Libya nearly $2,000
monthly! Eventually, the jihadist insurgents, mostly mercenaries paid by Turkey
(and perhaps by Qatar, as some say), defeated the opponent tribes and created a
provisional government under the Western sphere of influence!
It is not a
coincidence that Libya and Egypt have rich natural resources such as oil and
natural gas. Egypt also has the Suez Canal's strategic area, a passage for
international trade. Importantly, Yemen has Aden's highly strategic port for
international trade. With its troops, Saudi Arabia moved to atrocities in
Yemen with the excuse of war on terror.
Egypt (2011)
Hosni Mubarak
served as the head of the Egyptian Air Force from 1972 to 1975 and progressed
to air chief marshal's rank in 1973. He became president of Egypt after the
murder of Anwar Sadat. Mubarak's presidency lasted approximately thirty years.
The Arab Spring revolution expanded to Egypt on January 25, 2011. The Egyptians
protested against the increasing police brutality, the lack of freedom,
corruption, and the financial crisis throughout the last few years of Mubarak's
administration.
The
revolution started with calls for protests from online youth groups through
social media! However, some speak about Western interference that stirred the
people. Millions of demonstrators demanded Mubarak resign. During violent
encounters between security forces and protesters, at least 846 people were
killed, and over 6,000 were wounded. Protests grew in all major cities across
the nation.
On February
11, 2011, Mubarak resigned as president and transferred power to the Armed
Forces Supreme Council. On April 13, 2011, a prosecutor required Mubarak and
his sons to be detained for corruption and abuse of power. On August 3, 2011,
he stood trial on neglect charges for failing to prevent peaceful protesters'
assassination during the uprising. On June 2, 2012, an Egyptian court sentenced
Mubarak to life imprisonment.
After his sentence, he was announced to have suffered a series of health crises. On
January 13, 2013, the High Court of Appeals requested a retrial. After this, he
was restrained in a military hospital while a Cairo court released his sons on
October 12, 2015. Finally, on March 2, 2017, Egypt's top appeals court
acquitted Mubarak and released him on March 24, 2017.
The deeper
reasons for the uprising were not as spontaneous as many believe, but behind
this is the West, especially the US, which aimed to bring the Arab countries
into its sphere of influence. However, in the case of Egypt, the West supported
the Muslim Brotherhood organization! Mohamed Morsi, a Muslim Brotherhood
Islamist organization member, served as the President of Egypt from June 30,
2012, to July 3, 2013. After a coup on July 3, 2013, General Abdel Fattah
el-Sisi removed him from the administration. Morsi was replaced by an interim
president, Adly Mansour, who appointed a new cabinet. Demonstrations followed,
culminating in the Rabaa massacre. Eventually, in the 2014 presidential
elections, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi became the new president.
In the case of
Egypt, one of the deeper reasons for the Arab Spring is that Egypt is the
largest non-OPEC producer of oil and the second-largest dry natural gas
producer in Africa. Additionally, controlling the strategic for global trade Suez Canal was vital. The Suez Canal's control was the reason for the
Arab–Israeli wars of 1967 and 1973. Initially, the West resumed its influence
on the Suez Canal; however, lately, Russia has the strategic canal under its
influence sphere.
In August
2014, the Egyptian government began a new side-channel construction to expand
and widen the Ballah Bypass to increase the canal's transit time. The
enlargement was intended to double the capacity of the Suez Canal. The "New
Suez Canal" was initiated on August 6, 2015. This side channel is
positioned at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez
Canal.
Russian
economic influence came with a 2014 meeting between Presidents Vladimir Putin
and Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, in Sochi and the creation of the Russian Industrial
Zone (RIZ) in the Suez Canal. The two sides agreed that the RIZ could include
Russian companies, plants, and sea transport companies.
Yemen
(2011 -
present)
Yemen is a
developing country and the most poverty-stricken country in the Middle East.
Under the administration of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, corruption was a
significant issue. The uprising initially started against the meager financial
conditions and against the government's plans to modify Yemen's constitution so
that Saleh's son could inherit the presidency. In 2011, the Arab Spring
revolution expanded to Yemen with mass protests.
Since the Arab
Spring of 2011, Yemen has been in a political crisis. Saleh's presidency was
deposed, and Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi became President on 21
February 2012. The transitional process was followed by fights between the
Huthis (an Islamic religious-political-armed movement), al-Islah (a Yemeni
Islamist party), and the al-Qaeda rebels.
In September
2014, after a coup, the Houthis took control of the country with the help of
the deposed President Saleh. Saleh was assassinated by a sniper resulting in a
new civil war. Saudi Arabia's military intervention was intended to restore
Hadi's government. The war blocked food imports, leading to a famine that
affected seventeen million people and the world's worst cholera outbreak causing
the death of over 2,226 people.
The death toll
increased further in the following years to 100,000 people (including more than
12,000 civilians), while nearly 85,000 children died from famine, and 2,556
people died from the cholera outbreak. Along with its willing allies, Saudi
Arabia committed crimes against humanity in Yemen, including bombardments of
civil regions. At the same time, the West did not react until the release of
children dying from hunger shocked global public opinion. However, the
incursions of the Saudis did not stop. The US provided intelligence, military
advice, and organizational support to the Saudi coalition.
With its
troops, Saudi Arabia moved to atrocities with the excuse of a ''war on
terror.'' But the real reason is the occupation of the port of Aden, which is
strategic for international trade. It should be mentioned that Saudi Arabia,
which intervened militarily in Yemen, has always been a faithful ally of the
US. The Saudi-led coalition, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), had
logistics support from the US, France, and the UK. At the same time, France is
an essential arms supplier to Saudi Arabia.
Firstly, the
US launched an attack in Yemen, showing that in the name of the ''war on
terror'' can chase real or not terrorists wherever and whenever it wishes.
Secondly, Islamic terrorist groups, including ISIS and Al Qaeda, have claimed
responsibility numerous times for attacks committed by lone wolves, usually
extremists or psychopaths. On 7 February 2020, the US killed the Al Qaeda
leader in Yemen with the excuse of the assassination of 3 US Navy sailors in
Florida, for which the terrorist group claimed responsibility.
Indonesia (1958)
Kusno Sukarno
was the leader of Indonesia's nationalist movement during the Dutch colonial
period and spent over a decade under Dutch detention until released by the
invading Japanese forces. After the Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945,
Sukarno became President.
In 1956 several regional commanders started to demand autonomy from Jakarta. Sukarno acted
to remove the subversive commanders. In February 1958, the rebellious military
commanders in Central Sumatera (Colonel Ahmad Hussein) and North Sulawesi
(Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the Republic of Indonesia-Permesta that
intended to overthrow the Sukarno administration.
Politicians
from the Masyumi Party joined the opposing Colonels. Because of their
anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received arms, financial, and other covert
aid from the CIA. That occurred until Allen Lawrence, an American pilot, was
killed in a bombing raid in April 1958. The central government reacted by
launching air raids and seaborne military attacks on rebel strongholds. In
1957, Sukarno established an autocratic system called "Guided
Democracy."
By 1958, the rebels were defeated, and the last left rebel guerilla troops surrendered by August 1961. US President John F. Kennedy invited Sukarno to Washington and provided economic and military aid to Indonesia.
During the
early 1960s, Sukarno aided the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), provoking the
military and Islamists. He also started an aggressive foreign policy of
anti-imperialism, with assistance from the Soviet Union and China. The failure
of the 30 September Movement (1965) led to the dissolution of the PKI. In 1967, Sukarno was replaced by General Suharto and remained under house arrest
until his death. On 21 June 1970, he died of renal failure in Jakarta Army
Hospital at age 69.
Lebanon (1982)
In 1958,
during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's administration, an
uprising broke out by Lebanese Muslims who desired to make Lebanon a member of
the United Arab Republic. Chamoun requested assistance, and on 15 July, 5,000
US Marines were dispatched to Beirut. After the crisis, a new government was
formed, led by the former general Fuad Chehab.
In 1975, after
increasing sectarian tensions, a civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War fought a coalition of Christian groups against the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO) joint forces, left-wing Druze, and Muslim
militias. In June 1976, Lebanese President Elias Sarkis asked the Syrian Army
to intervene in the civil war on the Christians' side and help restore peace.
In October 1976, the Arab League agreed to establish a Syrian-Arab Deterrent
Force to restore order. In 1982, the PLO attacked Israel from Lebanon, and this
led to the attack by Israel.
A
multinational force of American, French, and Italian contingents joined in 1983
by a British unit was deployed in Beirut after the Israeli assault on the city
to manage the evacuation of the PLO. It returned in September 1982, after the
murder of the Lebanese President Bashir Gemayel and subsequent fighting. Many
killings were committed, such as in Damour, Sabra, Shatila, and several
refugee camps.
Bombardments
continued for one year, and eventually, the multinational force departed in the
spring of 1984. In September 1988, the Parliament failed to elect a successor
to President Gemayel because of the differences between Christians, Muslims,
and Syrians. On 16 September 1989, the board issued a peace plan. A truce was
established, the ports and airports were re-opened, and the refugees returned
to their cities.
The Lebanese
Parliament agreed to the Taif Agreement, which incorporated an outline
timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and the Lebanese political
system's reforms. The war finished at the end of 1990 after sixteen years. The
fighting displaced nearly a million civilians while the country's economy was
devastated. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000
wounded.
Palestine
The powerful Israeli lobby influences the US foreign policy, and in the case of Palestine, the USA undermined the peace talks, especially during the PLO leadership by Yasser Arafat. On May 4, 1994, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat reached an agreement in Cairo on the first stage of Palestinian self-rule. However, there is much to do by both sides as tension remains and Israeli attacks have cost the lives of many invent Palestinian civilians.
Iran (1953 & 2005)
In 1951 Prime
Minister Mohammad Mossadegh attempted to nationalize Iran's oil industry,
threatening the profits of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later known as the
''BP''). In 1953, the CIA cooperated with Great Britain to topple Mossadegh's democratically elected Iran government. The first sanction by Great Britain and
the US was the boycott and political pressure to change the decision. A covert
propaganda campaign followed that. Eventually, Britain convinced the US to
cooperate in ousting the prime minister and installing a puppet regime. As
usual, the CIA planned, funded, and executed the plan. The coup objective was
called ''Operation Ajax'' and was accomplished with the aid of British
Intelligence (MI6).
After the
coup, the Shah introduced electoral reforms as part of a series of
reforms called the ''White Revolution.'' Nevertheless, according to Amnesty
International, the Shah also carried out at least three hundred political assassinations.
After the coup, the Shah became increasingly despotic, and Iran entered a phase
of prolonged controversial close ties with the US. While the Shah increasingly
modernized Iran, SAVAK, his secret police, was crushing any political
adversary. Ruhollah Khomeini, a radical Muslim cleric, became an active doubter
of Shah's reforms and publicly blamed the government. He was eventually
apprehended and jailed for 18 months. After his release in 1964, he was sent
into exile.
Because of the
1973 spike in oil prices, Iran's economy was overwhelmed with foreign currency,
which increased inflation. By 1974, the Iranian economy was encountering
double-digit inflation. By 1975 and 1976, an economic recession led to
increased unemployment, especially among the young population who started to
protest against the regime. Corruption was more than evident despite the many
notable projects to modernize the country.
The 1979
Islamic Revolution started in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations
against the Shah. In February 1979, after a year of strikes, Khomeini returned
from exile to Tehran, making a new Islamic republic under a theocratic
constitution. Then, uprisings erupted throughout Iran against the new
government. These began with the 1979 Kurdish rebellion and the Khuzestan uprisings,
as well as the revolts in Sistan and Baluchestan, and other regions. Over the
next several years, these upheavals were suppressed violently by the new
radical Islamic government.
On 4 November
1979, Muslim students seized the US Embassy. The gang took the embassy
with fifty-two personnel and citizens hostage after the US refused to return Mohammad
Reza Pahlavi to Iran to face trial. Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration
to negotiate for the release of the hostages failed as this helped Ronald Reagan
come to power. Eventually, just before Carter passed the administration to
Ronald Regan, the last hostages were finally set free because of the Algiers
Accords.
The Cultural
Revolution began in 1980, starting with the shutdown of universities for three
years. On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded Khuzestan's western Iranian
province, beginning the Iran–Iraq War. Although the forces of Saddam Hussein
made several early advances, by mid-1982, the Iranian forces successfully drove
the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Nonetheless, the war continued until 1988, when
the Iraqi military won over the Iranian forces inside Iraq and pushed the
remaining Iranian troops back beyond the border. Finally, Khomeini accepted a
truce arbitrated by the UN.
Notably, during
the Iran-Iraq conflict (1980-1988), the US covertly provided aid to Saddam
Hussein and the Iraqis for their war with Iran! The US assistance for Iraq
during the war against Iran involved financial aid, the sale of dual-use arms,
military intelligence, and military training. President Reagan's administration
authorized the offer of weaponry to Iraq. During the Iran-Iraq conflict in the
1980s,’ it is said that the US sold arms to Iran, meaning that it gave weaponry
to both countries!
As mentioned
above, the US supported the Contras in Nicaragua. But the US President Reagan
administration armed and funded the Contras by covertly selling arms to Iran in
exchange for their cash to supply weapons to the Contras of Nicaragua! However,
the Boland Amendments (1982-1984) made it unlawful under US law to use US funds
to support the Contras.
In 2006, US
President George W. Bush authorized the CIA to undertake black operations
against Iran to destabilize the Iranian government. Specifically, the US
Congress passed the Iran Freedom and Support Act, which allocated ten million
dollars toward pro-democracy groups opposing the Iranian government. Moreover,
the USA funded and trained militant groups that opposed the Iranian government,
such as the ''People’s Mujahidin Organization'' and the ''Party for a Free Life
in Kurdistan.'' The CIA also supported a militant Sunni organization called
Jjudundullah, which has launched incursions into Iran from its base in Pakistan
to sabotage Iran's nuclear program.
In 2009, US
President Barack Obama accused Iran of planning a nuclear program. Although
Iran denied this program's existence, the UN Security Council imposed sanctions
against Iran with an embargo, including arms selling. These sanctions continued
with the Donald Trump administration. In 2019, the US ''discouraged'' its
allies from purchasing oil from Iran. This movement negatively impacted Europe,
a good client of cheap Iranian oil. In January 2020, the US launched an air
raid to assassinate the Iranian major general Qasem Soleimani. The
assassination occurred at the Bagdad International Airport and was conducted
with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
The
assassination of Soleimani violated international law and military practice.
The US neither declared war on Iran nor requested a UN resolution to launch the
air raid from a neighboring country. But even if they were in a war, generals
are not murdered. They are kept to sign a treaty or stand trial but are not
killed deliberately at the combat scene! In other words, the event was a brutal
assassination of a significant general that the US called a ''terrorist,''
meaning that the US decides each time who is and who is not a
''terrorist.''
The Israeli
lobby in the US has always been behind any decision of the US presidents
against Iran, as it is a traditional enemy of Israel. Israel has accused Iran
and Lebanon of harboring Hezbollah, an Islamist political party and militant
group that originated in Lebanon, and since 1992 Hassan Nasrallah has led it.
Iranian oil is
the reason for the interventions of the US in Iran. But another critical issue that needs to be stressed is that the US has always wished to control the
Strait of Hormuz, an Iranian island in the Persian Gulf. The Strait of Hormuz
is located between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. It provides the only
sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean and is one of the world's
most strategically vital choke points.
Somalia (2002)
The Somali
Civil War began as an opposition to the Siad Barre regime during the 1980s. By
1988–90, the Somali Armed Forces started assaulting various armed rebel groups.
In 1992, the United Nations (UN) peacekeeping forces UNITAF (Unified Task
Force; a US-led, UN-sanctioned multinational force) and UNOSOM (an UN-funded
effort to provide, facilitate, and secure humanitarian relief in Somalia)
intervened in the civil war.
The battle of Mogadishu in October 1993 was a failed attempt by US troops to seize faction leader Aidid. On March 3, 1995, the UN soldiers finally departed after an operation with many casualties. In 2000, the transitional national government was established, succeeded by the interim federal government in 2004. On May 1, 2008, the US launched an airstrike on Dhusamareb and, on May 3, another airstrike on Dobley. In October 2013, the US Army began organizing the Mogadishu Coordinating Cell in the Somali capital. It became fully operational in December. On September 1, 2014, the USA launched an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) assault to exterminate the Al-Shabaab leader Moktar Ali Zubeyr.
Turkey (1980)
One day before
the September 12, 1980 military coup, 3,000 US troops of the RDF started the
''Operation Anvil Express'' in Turkey. At the end of 1981, a Turkish-American
Defense Council was founded. The US State Department announced the coup during
the night between 11 and 12 September. The military had phoned the US embassy
in Ankara to inform them of the coup one hour before it occurred! The US seems
to have supported the coup. Turkey was also a country in which the Arab
Spring (2010) uprising expanded. In 2013 several protests occurred in Istanbul,
where the police killed a 14-year-old kid.
Other countries
Angola (1975)
After the South African invasion of Angola, Fidel Castro, without informing the Soviet Union, decided to send troops there and deploy them in Angola. The US administration was aware of South Africa's covert invasion plan and cooperated militarily with its forces. In 1975, the CIA participated in the Angolan Civil War by hiring and training American, British, French, and Portuguese private military companies and additionally training the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) rebels under the leadership of the Angolan revolutionary politician Jonas Savimbi to fight against the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by the Angolan politician Agostinho Neto.
Tibet (1955)
From 1912 to 1950, Tibet was dissolved of seigniory under China proper because of the Xinhai Revolution and Japanese occupation during World War II. Other parts of Tibet were also under the control of the Chinese government since the mid-eighteenth century. In 1949, the Communists, under Mao Zedong's leadership, gained power. In 1950 they took control of Tibet when the People's Liberation Army of China won the Tibetan army in a battle near Chambo.
In 1951, the Tibetan delegates signed an agreement with the Chinese Central People’s Government, asserting China's sovereignty over Tibet and the incorporation of Tibet. The treaty was ratified in Lhasa a few months later. Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959 and renounced the treaty. Tibet Autonomous Region was established in 1965, rendering Tibet an administrative division as a Chinese province.
The CIA
Tibetan plan was developed in the early 1950s and ended in 1972. It was a
secret operation consisting of political action, propaganda, paramilitary, and
intelligence operations based on US Government arrangements made with the
brothers of the Dalai Lama. Initially, the Dalai Lama was not aware of these
arrangements. The CIA armed an anti-Communist insurgency for two decades to
combat the invasion of Tibet by Chinese forces and the following control of
Tibet by China. The objective of the program was to keep an autonomous Tibet.
It was coordinated with several US government agencies, such as the State
Department and the Department of Defense.
Preceding operations had aimed to strengthen several Tibetan insurgency groups, eventually creating a paramilitary unit on the Nepalese border. This force consisted of about 2,000 men. According to the 14th Dalai Lama, the CIA backed the Tibetan independence act to destabilize all communist governments. It is said that the budget figures for the CIA's Tibetan program were:
- A subsidy to Dalai Lama (180,000 dollars).
- Payment of Tibetan rebels based in Nepal
(500,000 dollars).
- Additional costs (1.06
million dollars).
Allegedly, the
total cost was 1.73 million dollars! Nevertheless, the CIA plan failed. So, all
that money did not give the expected outcome!
Congo (1965)
From 1960 to
1964, Congo was in a civil war, with the regions of Katanga and South Kasai
declaring their independence. The President of Congo, Patrice Lumumba, sought
support from the Soviet Union to win the insurrections. Worried about a
communist takeover of the country, USA President Dwight Eisenhower authorized
the CIA to kill Lumumba. However, these plans were not completed. In 1964, the
Maoist Simba Rebellion broke out. In 1965 Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara
traveled to Congo to offer the insurgents his guerrilla experience! Guevara led
the Cuban operation in support of the Marxist Simba movement.
On April 24,
1965, about one hundred Afro-Cubans collaborated with guerrilla leader Laurent-Desire
Kabila. White South African mercenaries, led by Mike Hoare in unity with Cuban
exiles and the CIA, operated with the Congo National Army to thwart Guevara.
They pre-empted his attacks and blocked his supply lines as Guevara sought to
hide his presence in the Congo. Eventually, he was confined in the mountains
near the village of Fizi, on Lake Tanganyika. With the aid of the CIA, American
and Belgian forces carried out an operation to rescue hundreds of European
hostages held by the Simba forces.
The Interventions in Europe
Greece (1967 junta) and Cyprus (1974
Turkish invasion)
On April 21, 1967, a coup d'état led by Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos established a military Junta. The dictatorship ended on July 24, 1974, after the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The US supported the Junta, which was violently anti-communist, and this fact is claimed to be the cause of the prevalent anti-Americanism in Greece that exists until today. In 1999, US President Bill Clinton apologized on behalf of the US government for supporting the military Junta with the excuse of Cold War tactics.
The Turkish
invasion of Cyprus was launched on July 20, 1974, following the 1974 Cypriot
coup d’état. The military Junta had ordered the coup in Greece. As mentioned
above, the US supported the Greek Junta. The coup's aim in Cyprus was
Greece's annexation of the island. The Cypriot National Guard staged the coup
with the EOKA-B insurgents led by General Georgios Grivas. It ousted the
Cypriot president Archbishop Makarios III and placed the member of EOKA, Nikos
Sampson as de facto president of Cyprus. In July 1974, Turkish armed forces,
with the code name Operation Attila invaded and captured 3 percent of the
island before a ceasefire.
Following the
Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the Greek military Junta crumbled and was replaced
by a democratic government of Konstantinos Karamanlis. In August 1974, a new
Turkish attack called Attila II ended in occupying approximately 40 percent of
the island that remains today. The ceasefire line from August 1974 became the
United Nations (UN) Buffer Zone in Cyprus (also known as ''the Green Line'').
More than one-quarter of the population of Cyprus (one-third of the Greek
Cypriot population) was expelled from the occupied northern part of the island,
where Greek Cypriots constituted 80 percent of the people.
The
declassified CIA documents revealed Henry Kissinger's involvement in consenting
to Turkey’s invasion of Cyprus. Henry Kissinger played a significant role in
the 1967 coup in Greece and the 1974 Turkish occupation of half of Cyprus.
Kissinger is a notorious American diplomat who served as National Security
Advisor and Secretary of State in the US Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald
Ford administrations. When Turkey invaded Cyprus in July 1974, Kissinger was
only concerned about the continued operation of US intelligence bases in Turkey
rather than the death toll from the invasion! Along with his support for
Cyprus' Turkish invasion, Kissinger was blamed for supporting the Greek Junta.
The CIA and Kissinger targeted Cypriot President Archbishop Makarios. On March
8, 1970, Makarios’ helicopter was hit with bullets in an assassination attempt
linked to the CIA and the Greek Colonels junta in Athens. Brendan O’Malley and
Ian Craig, in their book ''The Cyprus Conspiracy,'' revealed that on July 15,
1974, Makarios’ Presidential Palace in Nicosia was hit with artillery fire from
tanks while Makarios was welcoming a group of young schoolchildren from Cairo.
Makarios survived his assassination attempt while the Presidential Guard fought
the coup plotters off for several hours. Eventually, the right-wing Junta that
replaced Makarios and the Greek military Junta in Athens collapsed. Makarios
continued to enjoy international recognition as President of Cyprus while in
exile in London.
Poland (1980)
The
administration of US President Ronald Reagan supported the solidarity movement
in Poland. With the CIA's intelligence aid, he directed a public relations
campaign to prevent an imminent movement by large Soviet military forces into
Poland. ''Solidarity'' was a Polish labor union founded on September 17, 1980, at
the Lenin Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Walesa. CIA support for
Solidarity included money, equipment, and training organized by the Special
Operations CIA division. It is said that the CIA subsidized Solidarity with
about 2 million dollars yearly and that 10 million dollars were assigned for
the 5-year total. All the money was routed through third parties.
Yugoslavia
(The 1995 operation, the 1998 -1999 Kosovo War, and
the air raid of Serbia by NATO in 1998)
The civil war
in Yugoslavia lasted from 1991 to 2001. The West's role is essential in the
civil war, attempting to dissolve a country belonging to the former Eastern
bloc and its detachment from the Russian sphere of influence. Serbia, led by
Slobodan Milosevic, had ties with Russia. Germany, the US, and its NATO allies ignited the Yugoslavian
civil war. Regarding the Vatican, Pope John Paul II became the first to
recognize catholic Croatia as an independent state. Some claimed that the Vatican
funded the Croatians during the civil war or sold them arms. But there is no
evidence for this.
In any
case, the West supported Bosnia, although a territory with a prevalent Muslim
population! Lately, Bosnia has had the support of Turkey. It is essential to
mention that the Western media and the international Court stressed Serbia's
crimes. But it concealed, or at least belittled the other side's
atrocities!
The
''Operation Deliberate Force'' was an air campaign conducted by NATO to ruin
the military capability of the Bosnian Serb Army (VRS), which had attacked the
United Nations (UN)-designated ''safe areas'' in Bosnia and Herzegovina during
the Bosnian War. The attack followed the Srebrenica and Markale slaughter,
launched between August 30 and September 20, 1995. It involved four hundred aircraft and
5,000 military personnel from 15 nations and was commanded by Admiral Leighton
W. Smith. The operation hit 338 Bosnian Serb targets, and overall, 1,026 bombs
were dropped.
The Kosovo
War was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from February 28, 1998,
until June 11, 1999. It was conducted by the forces of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (consisting then of the Republics of Montenegro and Serbia), which
controlled Kosovo before the war, and the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA; also
known as UCK), a Kosovo, Albanian insurgent group with the ground support from
the Albanian army.
The American
diplomat Richard Holbrooke traveled to Belgrade in March 1999 to deliver the
final ultimatum requesting the entry of UN forces into Kosovo. Nonetheless,
Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic rejected the ultimatum. On March 24,
1999, US President Bill Clinton declared war on Yugoslavia in an Allied Force
Operation led by US General Wesley Clark. The operation code was ''Operation
Allied Force,'' called by the USA ''Operation Noble Anvil.'' NATO units
bombarded multiple targets in Serbia.
According to
NATO, the operation's objective was to stop human rights violations in Kosovo.
Importantly, it was the first time that the organization used military force
without the approval of the United Nations (UN) Security Council! The
airstrikes lasted from March 24, 1999, to June 10, 1999. The attack annihilated
528 civilians and ruined infrastructure, including bridges, industrial plants,
public buildings, and private businesses. The 1999 bombardments led to the
withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo and the establishment of a UN mission in
Kosovo.
During the
bombings, there were controversial incidents, with the most important the bombing
of the People's Republic of China embassy in Belgrade, where three Chinese
reporters died and twenty were injured. Unbelievably, NATO claimed that the
attack against the Chinese embassy was a mistake! A crime against humanity was
that missiles contained depleted uranium bombs, exposing the population
to radioactivity, a well-known cause of cancer! It should be noted that
radioactivity also affected NATO personnel. For example, Italian soldiers'
relatives contended that 50 died from exposure to depleted uranium weapons.
On March 31,
2001, Milosevic was arrested on suspicion of corruption and embezzlement and
was extradited to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) to stand trial for war crimes. Milosevic conducted his defense in the
five-year-long trial in The Hague, which ended without a verdict when he died
in his prison cell on March 11, 2006. His death was attributed to a heart
attack, but it is said that his ''sudden death'' occurred when he was about to
make extraordinary revelations in the court!
Notwithstanding,
the Tribunal denied any responsibility for Milosevic's death. After Milosevic's
mysterious death, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) concluded separately
in the Bosnian Genocide Case that there was no evidence linking him to the
genocide committed by Bosnian Serb forces during the Bosnian War. However, the
Court did find that he failed to prevent the genocide.
It should be
mentioned that many years ago, on a web chat with a Serbian, I was told that
Milosevic, although a communist, worked as a banker in the USA! Of course, it
was impossible to confirm this. However, encyclopedia.com states, ''By 1978,
Milosevic became head of one of Yugoslavia's largest banks, Beobanka. His
banking business took him on frequent travels to the United States and France,
where he learned English and French.'' It is not a coincidence that his English
accent was closer to American!
Regarding the
notorious Serbian General Radovan Karadzic, referred to by the Western media as
the "Butcher of Bosnia,'' he was arrested in Belgrade on July 21, 2008,
and brought before Belgrade's War Crimes Court. Like Milosevic, he was
extradited to the Netherlands, in the custody of the International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the United Nations Detention Unit of
Scheveningen. He was charged with several war crimes. On March 24, 2016, he was
found guilty of the genocide in Srebrenica and crimes against humanity and
sentenced to 40 years imprisonment.
Interventions in the Former USSR
Ukraine (civil war, 2014)
The civil war in Ukraine is described in my text The USA as a global governor!
The US intervention in the current Russo-Ukrainian War is described in my text Russia's invasion of Ukraine: The Real Story!
Georgia (2008)
The tension
between Georgia and Russia escalated in April 2008 when South Ossetia
separatists blew up a Georgian military vehicle on August 1, injuring five
Georgian soldiers. Ossetia separatists started shelling Georgian villages on
August 1, with an occasional response from Georgian soldiers. In the evening,
Georgian snipers retaliated by attacking the South Ossetia border
checkpoints.
On August 7,
Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili ordered a one-sided ceasefire.
However, Ossetia separatists escalated their attacks on Georgian villages.
Finally, Georgia launched a large-scale military operation against South
Ossetia during the night of 7–8 August 2008, in which 10,000–11,000 soldiers
took part in the general Georgian assault.
Russia
officially sent troops across the Georgian border into South Ossetia, claiming
to defend soldiers and South Ossetian civilians. After five days of combat, the
Russian forces captured Tskhinvali, pushed back Georgian troops, and
destroyed Georgia’s military infrastructure with airstrikes.
Through mediation by France, the parties reached a ceasefire agreement on
August 12. On October 8, Russian forces withdrew from the buffer zones adjacent
to Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Russia recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia on
August 26, 2008, that remain under Russian occupation. In response, the
Georgian government cut diplomatic relations with Russia.
It should be
noted that, as in the civil war in Ukraine, the actual conflict was between the
West and Russia. The battle started when Georgia cut its ties with Russia and
entered the US sphere of influence, aiming to become a NATO member!
Epilogue
Oil and natural gas reserves and pipelines remain the leading causes of wars. Unless the US tends to use greener and more renewable forms of energy, conflicts are expected to continue! The US has been accused of violating human rights, such as abducting suspects everywhere and interrogating them with torture, being accountable to nobody! President George W. Bush, after the 9/11 attacks, said, ''You're either with us or against us!'' we should fight American imperialism and any imperialism, for instance, the forthcoming Russian and Chinese. We entitle them to continue exploiting the planet by not opposing their interventions.
https://jamestown.org/program/strategic-consequences-of-russias-economic-presence-in-the-suez-canal-zone/
http://www.balkanalysis.com/blog/2005/04/09/another-side-of-the-pope-john-paul-iis-balkan-legacy/
https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1751&context=ree
(Retrieved: January 23, 2020):
https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/aug/10/afghanistan-civilian-casualties-statistics